Language Impairments and Development

1.    Identification and description of the stages of language development.

It is generally accepted that children learn language in two phases: The pre-verbal stage (first four) and the grammatical (the last four stages). The first four stages consist of sounds, babbling, holophrases and two word sentences. The last four stages consist of telegraphic sentences, joined sentences, generalizations and overgeneralizations. In an excerpt from “'Stages of Language Development' from Early Childhood Education," the authors carefully present 7 stages (Driscoll & Nagel, 2008).[1]

Although scholars do not agree on the stages of language development, they do agree that children go through stages in their acquisition of a language. One such scholar is Stephen Krashen.

Krashen believes that teaching grammar does not help in language acquisition except if the students are interested in the subject and the target language is the medium of instruction. When students become aware of their lacunas and the teacher is able to teach them, then grammar will help in language acquisition. For example, each time I wanted to teach a grammar lesson like past tense or sentence structures, I used immigration or love topics that rile them up. At that very moment, the classroom becomes the perfect place to teach them those concepts.

Krashen divided his into 5 stages, Stage 1- The Silent/Receptive or Pre-emergent Stage in which the student starts to learn the alphabet, phonemes and allomorphs. Children are given the alphabet to practice with. He called his stage II-The Early Production or Emergent Stage. At this stage, the student will improve their reading skills. Kids use the alphabets to build worlds and then read them aloud to their parents or closest person around them. Stage III: The Speech Emergence or Basic Stage is actually when the child will be able to read aloud and construct sentences. In Stage IV: The Intermediate Language Proficiency Stage, the student will be able to differentiate between spoken and written language. Stage V: The Advanced Language Proficiency Stage showed how the student was able to apply the knowledge in contemporary times. He went further to He went on to describe 5 hypotheses.

The Acquisition-Learning 

Krashen proposes two systems under the Acquisition –learning hypothesis. Acquisition is subconscious while learning is conscious. In other words, the learner does not really care if they are speaking or writing well, in so far as they speak or write. In learning system, they are careful of what they speak or write. The learning here is more organized than in the acquisition system.

The Monitor hypothesis

The monitor hypothesis shows that while the learner is learning the new language, he or she monitors it as they learn because they do not do so during acquisition since acquisition is done subconsciously. Krashen thinks that monitoring should be minor except in situations of deviations from normal speech.

The Input hypothesis

It explains how people acquire a second language. Language is acquired when we understand what is being taught or what we learn.

The Natural Order hypothesis

It states that all learners acquire language naturally the same way. They pick up the things that are simple to understand. It does not matter the age or native language.

Affective Filter hypothesis

People learn language better when there is no filter during their acquisition. Those filters are things like motivation, positive self-esteem and level of anxiety

The conclusion is that in language development, the social interaction plays a great role in proper language development. This correlates with the Social Learning Theory which posists that learning occurs only in social context and can occur through observation or direct instruction, and the Social Cognitive Theory which theorizes that part of human acquisition of knowledge will come from social interactions and observations.

For example, when children are born, their brains start to study the speech patterns and words they hear by social interaction. Since their parents are the closest to them, what they say and how they say it is very crucial because of the children’s mimicry which will start with the holophrases and telegraphic speeches. Children will be learning more through imitation because they target social skills: effective communication with people because the child does not know how to interact with others yet. The child will exhibit some comorbidity. There is that abstract modeling whereby she has been seeing the same thing that it has become some normalcy.

In language development, behavior is sometimes developed too in a social context of violence through observations and direct instruction according to Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory.

2.      Activities that elicit language acquisition at home and in school.

There are a lot of activities that elicit language acquisition both at home and in school. One of them is simulation.   Thirumalai underscores it in this article, “Simulation in language learning acquisition” in these words, “Simulations very openly promote effective interpersonal relations and social transactions between participants (Jameel, 2011).”[2] In other words, when you present language learning patterns, the exchange and interactions thereof will be based on the proclivity of the learner. As they learn, their worldviews, feelings and actions are very strongly influenced.

A.    Teaching Strategies that work.

There are various strategies for getting student involvement. Student involvement is paramount in boosting their self-confidence. One of the ways we could do that is by employing physical activities. It will hype the tempo of the class and bring out the personality of each student which will help them in feeling free in the classroom. Each time we participate in an activity, we remember it better than the one we just read or saw. It keeps most people at the same pace on the same stage. Research has proven that physical activity involves left and right brains.

            Another way we could get student involvement is by paring them in groups i what is generally called " Group Study." Most students come from different cultures. By working in pairs, it may reduce cultural differences because cultural differences could summon a subjective implementation of classroom rules and mean different things to different students. That can impede the apprehension of content material. I usually called it Community Learning or Communal Studies. However, it has its own disadvantage in that a disruptive student may hijack a whole group, escheating them from the lesson of the day. Group studies also reduce anxiety. The indefatigable students serve as boosts to the languid ones.

            Further activities to get more student involvement for language learners is by using bilingual books. Firstly, most books with bilingual labels are less culturally restrictive.  As such, students easily identify themselves with the language. Secondly, it refreshes their minds as they look at words in their native language in other languages. This will encourage writing in the second language because it gives the students a ready word pool to select from. It turns the word from being abstract to concrete. That is because they are seeing the word not only in a language they do not know but a language they know especially when it is accompanied by visuals. Visuals will create a mental picture in the learner that will reinforce the theoretical abstraction you have been giving them. Some of the most effective visuals are visual aids in progressive disclosure, overhead foils and slides because they catch the attention of the learner, push them to anticipate what you are bringing next and that includes them in the teaching  and learning processes.

B.     Proper Planning and Preparation. When a lesson is well planned and prepared for, it will elicit acquisition.

To plan well, you use the student’s background knowledge because language acquisition becomes natural, reducing the stress. By using previous background, we come into contact with habitual and existent knowledge and cognates that will facilitate understanding.

Clarifying a lesson to a child by explaining key vocabulary which will catch their interest more than if they were looking at it like a dog is watching a TV. We have inbuilt positive attitude in the students. It is important to constantly ask probing questions as they read to create understanding, and also to constantly make flashbacks and allusions. Lessons should be by applying it to their everyday life. Language acquisition should always have inherent study of literature by designing elements of literature (plot, setting, themes, characters and life lessons) chart to explore the deeper meaning. Finally, the lesson should always end with an imaginative writing exercise to spell out their point of view.

C.     Conducive Learning Environment.

Another element to elicit language acquisition is to create a conducive learning environment. Every learner needs to feel comfortable to learn, whether at home or in school. When most of my students came, they were not able to read. Now at least I am looking forward to putting some of them into AP classes because they can read, write and interpret literature. I had an Indian student who was failing a class because she misjudged the teacher did not like her. I spoke with her and assisted her in her lesson,  and now she is making a hundred percent- hse is an "A" student. Every human being wants to be in a place where he or she is loved, accepted and valued to perform at their maximum capability.

It advisable to use strategies like Interactive Read Aloud because by giving the students opportunities to participate, speak and write, they turn to build their self-confidence. The biggest difficulty from the initial stages that language learners-kids and adults have to surmount from the initial stages is the fear of not sounding right. By reading and mimicking what they hear, they find the environment a better place to learn. More so, as they read aloud at times in class, they themselves become the teacher to one another, and that reduces the fear of failure too. In addition, it increases the animation of the class to a point that even kids who are not used to speaking want to speak. There are a couple of reasons why anxiety becomes a major factor when acquiring a language. The fear of not succeeding or the fear of a teacher who is always correcting you and drawing your attention to better pronunciation and the lack of support structures to facilitate apprehension: cultural interpretation, accommodation techniques and teaching strategies may not elicit language acquisition. Interactive read aloud will cancel that because they are their own teacher.

D.    Building vocabulary and fluency at home and in school will elicit language Acqusition.

            One way to increase vocabulary and fluency is by Modeled Talk: “the use of gestures, visuals and demonstrations as explanations are made“. It is great for learners of not only English language but anyone learning a language. Language on its own is abstract and arbitrary, but with the use of gestures, it moves into a more concrete and interpersonal level. Meanwhile, the visual modality will enhance the auditory capacity and provide understandable cues.

            Another strategy to upsurge vocabulary is by role playing. Role playing could expand vocabulary and even enhance apprehension. Some of the activities to employ could be making the students select various characters when reading a play, dividing the class into groups and let them consider themselves as a renowned group in the world competing against another, saying that they are the teacher for the moment and would like to teach the class the words they think no one knows what they mean or at times imitating their parents’ style they used to counsel them at home while they teach the word to others. By doing so, the word sticks with them. They remember it better, especially because by explaining to classmates it becomes an integral part of them and shifts from abstract to concrete.

            Another way we could enhance vocabulary is by using word walls. These are a set of words alphabetically arranged on the wall or board of a classroom that students can easily see and read. At times they could be categorized in High -Frequency word, literature word walls or content area word walls. I used them  and they helped the students a great deal.   

3. Accommodations in the general education classroom for students with language impairments

To better accommodate a child, one must look at least 5 factors. The environment 5, the teacher, the teaching technique, the amount of work and the efforts of the child. If the child has difficulties understanding the content, then we will design special instruction for him/her. If the child merely has a low speed in coping with the rest of the class, then we adapt the instruction. You could reduce the work or ask the child to submit a reduced amount of work. Instead of using the grade level textbook, he or she could use a simplified version or a lower grade level textbook for the same concept.

We look at their needs for assistive technology. For example, if the child cannot type, we may ask them to read their answers to an aide to type them or just read the answers to the teacher. In other words, accept oral answers for the student. According to the article, “Aspects Concerning “Play” for the Promotion of Preschool Children with Severe Speech- and Language Impairment,” Ullrich and Marten concluded that, “Therapy at a specialized ‘Speech therapy kindergarten’ can improve speech-/ language (SL) abilities of SL-impaired preschool children to a great extent (Ullrich  & Marten, 2016).”[3] In other words, we could accommodate some kids with therapy- speech therapy or occupational therapy for them to succeed in their classes. Some students could also be provided counseling services. 
Some kids cannot take a certain amount of work, so we may look at their schedules. Instead of giving them general education classes, we could give them, resource courses; the same courses taught by special education teachers. Then we could put them into a study skills class.

Some students might do well during classes, but they will falter during testing. At that time, we look at the testing environment, the test administrators and the test itself. Sometimes, to accommodate them, we have the student test in a place they feel very comfortable or with whoever they feel comfortable. At times, we would look at the nature of the test to see if we need a shorter version of the test. That is how we could accommodate the student.

Works Cited

1.      Nagel, A. D. (2010, July 20). Stages of Language Development. Retrieved June 02, 2017, from https://www.education.com/reference/article/stages-language-development/

2.      Jameel, Altaf. "Simulation in language learning acquisition." Language In India, Nov. 2011, p. 745+. Academic OneFile, ezp1r.riosalado.edu/login?url=http://go.galegroup.com.ezp1r.riosalado.edu/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&u=mccweb_riosalado&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA276186740&sid=summon&asid=5da74da2e6138c2e18804911510c207f. Accessed 2 June 2017.

3.      Ullrich , D., & Marten, M. (2016). Aspects Concerning “Play” for the Promotion of Preschool Children with Severe Speech- and Language Impairment. Retrieved June 02, 2017, from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1116875.pdf

Bibliography

1.      Denton, C. A., Tolar, T. D., Fletcher, J. M., Barth, A. E., Vaughn, S., & Francis, D. J. (2013, August). Effects of Tier 3 Intervention for Students With Persistent Reading Difficulties and Characteristics of Inadequate Responders. Retrieved May 31, 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4191908/

2.      Diliberto, J. (2014). SYLLABICATION INSTRUCTION THE SOLUTION TO DECODING PROBLEMS. Retrieved June 02, 2017, from http://www.ncpublicschools.org/docs/ccsa/conference/2014/presentations/116.pdf

3.      Hebbeler, K., & Spiker, D. (2016). Supporting Young Children with Disabilities. Retrieved July 02, 2017, from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1118562.pdf

4.      Jameel, Altaf. "Simulation in language learning acquisition." Language In India, Nov. 2011, p. 745+. Academic OneFile, ezp1r.riosalado.edu/login?url=http://go.galegroup.com.ezp1r.riosalado.edu/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&u=mccweb_riosalado&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA276186740&sid=summon&asid=5da74da2e6138c2e18804911510c207f. Accessed 2 June 2017.

5.      Meier, J., & Freck, K. (2009). Reading Rockets. Retrieved June 02, 2017, from http://www.readingrockets.org/article/seeking-help-struggling-reader-seven-steps-teachers

6.      Nagel, A. D. (2010, July 20). Stages of Language Development. Retrieved June 02, 2017, from https://www.education.com/reference/article/stages-language-development/

7.      National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY). (2011, January). Speech & & & & & Language Impairments . Retrieved June 02, 2017, from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED572698.pdf

8.      Seeking Help for a Struggling Reader: Seven Steps for Teachers. (2017, March 16). Retrieved May 31, 2017, from http://www.readingrockets.org/article/seeking-help-struggling-reader-seven-steps-teachers

9.      The Last Clues. (1973). Retrieved June 01, 2017, from https://www.riolearn.org/content/edu/edu271/EDU271_HYBD_0000_v1/pdfs/L12%20The%20Last%20Clues.pdf

10.  Tutoring Strategies for the Primary Grades. (2017, March 16). Retrieved April 09, 2017, from http://www.readingrockets.org/article/tutoring-strategies-primary-gradesTutoring Strategies for the Primary Grades. (2017, March 16). Retrieved June 01, 2017, from http://www.readingrockets.org/article/tutoring-strategies-primary-grades

11.  Ullrich , D., & Marten, M. (2016). Aspects Concerning “Play” for the Promotion of Preschool Children with Severe Speech- and Language Impairment. Retrieved June 02, 2017, from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1116875.pdf

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[1] Nagel, A. D. (2010, July 20). Stages of Language Development. Retrieved June 02, 2017, from https://www.education.com/reference/article/stages-language-development/

[2] Jameel, Altaf. "Simulation in language learning acquisition." Language In India, Nov. 2011, p. 745+. Academic OneFile, ezp1r.riosalado.edu/login?url=http://go.galegroup.com.ezp1r.riosalado.edu/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&u=mccweb_riosalado&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA276186740&sid=summon&asid=5da74da2e6138c2e18804911510c207f. Accessed 2 June 2017.

[3] Ullrich , D., & Marten, M. (2016). Aspects Concerning “Play” for the Promotion of Preschool Children with Severe Speech- and Language Impairment. Retrieved June 02, 2017, from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1116875.pdf